THE VARIATION OF WEST PAPUA

THE VARIATION OF WEST PAPUA

Speaking about West Papua Culture is a very difficult job, since they almost have no culture, every group, or every clique has their own specific behavior or customs that is not related, even between house to house. There are a great variation, of culture from those having slight relation from one to an other up to those having definitely no observable relation. Their relation is basically based on genealogy relation which is mostly also disordered. This is added again by the dozens of different languages spoken by each clique or group, as a real big stone block to understand the whole situation.
Among those there are some simple cultures already well known such as Baliem tribe, Dani tribe, Yali tribe, and Agat tribe. But almost all of them physically have the same characteristics. In the past most of them were living deep in inner land and on foot of mountain, some of them build their nest on the trees. With the unity of West Papua into Republic Indonesia, government have tried to persuade them to live a more settled manner with cultivated land, so some of them went down to the open areas and more cultivated areas, and adjust themselves to the new life which is pioneered by the migrant from other parts of Indonesia, such as around North coast, cities and centers of local governments.
The main factors of their low mentality which is not conducive for their development are their extreme primitive life and social system. But their primitive life is the main attraction for experts as well as tourists to visit West Papua. It is famous just because they are primitive, with their housing is also very simple in great harmony with the nature, as they still not wear cloth, as their chieftain corps is kept for years at home as a mummy, and their pig feast.
The people of West Papua shows a great variety of culture and languages, although physically the whole ethnics that live today look the same, that they show Melanosoid Characteristics. Seen from the variety of their culture the whole people of west Papua can be grouped very roughly based on the area such as ; Cendrawasih area, Cendrawasih beach and it's islands resident of North mangrove area, resident around Jaya Wijaya high land, people live on Savannah of South area. Among them some ethnic have been given the name and known well such as the Dani, The Agat and the Yali. The variation of their culture can be seen from their living or economy, art, and social system besides there are a great variation of language. In General the variation of language shows the group of Melanesian family and there are specific of West Papua languages which among West Papuan language itself showing a further great variation. The Melanesian language is part of a widely spoken language called Austronesian. This group of language is spoken on area from Madagascar to Paas island on Pacific ocean and to the north in bordered by Taiwan. An inventory of West Papua languages which are not grouped as Melanesian languages has been reported by faculty of Anthropology, University of Indonesia in 1963, edited by Prof. Koentjaraningrat and Harsja W. Bachtiar. The area of Cendrawasih Bay and along the northern shore of West Papua are known as the areas having various languages groups with small number of speakers, the member of a certain language group can be 100 persons or even less. This extreme variation can be traced back into prehistory when their time of migration from one place to their current resident. Since then a condition of isolated life among each others continues until the independence of Indonesia . Linguistic theory of isolation has been explaining about similarity of main words and development to further variation of most of the words. Even an Indian and linguist used a theory of geometry to estimate the time of a language start to break into different group by analyzing the basic 200 vocabulary. Along the northern coast of West Papua flow some rivers such as Woska, Tor, Bier, Biri, Wirowai, Toarim, and Semowai. The rivers originate from goutier mountain, Karamour, and Bonggo. Multi various ethnic groups now living along the shore of West Papua originated from highland deep at the river sources. The started to migrated around 300 years ago, and some started 2 generations ago. The phenomena of moving from highland to the beach is still continuing. They built their settlements behind the sand beach on the marshy area. In 1920 there were around 24 settlements and relocated by force by the Dutch to settle on the beach with the health reason and control facility. For 24 settlements by language can be grouped into 7 languages which were belong to Melanesian group. During the period of observation between 1940 to 1963 the birth rate was very low with the migration of people to the town, the number of population on north shore had been decreasing their houses are built on wooden poles with total height around 4.5 meters, and 4x5 meters wide. A house consist of 2 or 1 rooms for sleeping, and another standing house for cooking the material for making house are wooden lodges, tied with rattan, wall mode of palm leaves, floor is made of mangrove skin, and roof is from palm leaves and branches of mangrove which is filed beautifully. In the phrases of constructing a house a big feast is needed, and exchange gifts for those who assist in the building is still a hard part of the process. The main subsistence of the people on the north coast of West Papua is the Sagu (the essence of palm trees). Their sagu farm is the natural sagu forest located 4 to 5 kms deep inland. Each family do not have clear border of the farm where they have their own area or where is belong to others. Sagu tree with the age between 8 to 12 years is ready to be harvested. On the northern coast the work of harvesting sagu is both for men and women, while at the area of the river's source this is exclusively the work of women, while men are hunters and land cultivators. They hunt various animal such as mouse, pigs, casuary birds, kangaroo, snake, and lizards. Very small wish from them to cultivate land in more systematic way. They just plant in no good treatment among forest area, then leave the area untreated to open other places, the neglected land will not be taken over by other people although after long time the land get back it's fertility. This is probably the choice is still to big, and for them cultivating land is not interesting on not important. Coconut meal or copra is one product of Northern shore which was started in 1920 when Dutch government took the resident of Masimasi island as volunteer of growing coconut which resulted thousands of coconut trees decorated the shore. In the course of time this big plantation continuously degraded until 1962 it has been really in trouble and disappeared their kinship system is almost the same as other Indonesian society, with the smallest unit is family and their children an average of 4 person per family. Some family is a big family where the grandparents are living also in the same house. Their naming tradition got the influence of Dutch Christian so they used convert name beside family name which is taken from his/her father's name. Before the conversion into Christian the original kinship must had been exist proved by the terminology of "Auwet", within an auwet there were names showing the similarity. Most probable that this auwet kinship system was a patrilineal system. Marriage even also has introduced exchange gift as other Indonesian traditional ethnics, especially the family of the youth must give an exchange to the girl family. Feasts during social events are also known just like many traditional area of Indonesia. These auwets are said to have specialization such as the auwet of Bagre and Maban have members who were skilful in warfare. Auwet Kibuan and Abowei who lived on high dry land were skill in cultivating land. Each auwet had their big house on poles where the important and relic of the family were preserved such as flutes. During relocation in 1920 from the marshy area to the beach all their houses were burnt, and the tradition of auwet and their heritages become disappeared during registration by the teachers from Ambon, it was found that certain group bearing the similarity of name and this group was called "fam". The preparation of a youth to merry a girl is the collection of shell arranged into a decor of big shell called "krae" a necklace arranged from dog teeth, belt made of jewelry, and rope made of wood skin. In the present of imported goods which are sold by Chinese, they also collect plates, kitchen tools, foods, especially canned and others. All these material will be used in exchange to the girl. It is a big and hard thing to do, that is why a youth got aid from the brother of his mother in collecting this gift and often need a long time. This wealth is given to the family of the girl after the marriage ceremony is completed and followed by special feast. After this traditional feast there is one ceremony again in the church. According to the tradition a new wedding couple should build a new house, but this something that too hard, beside the cost of building also the feast that is needed is a hell. So in the fact to many new couple live verilocally (stay with husband family), yet some are living uxorilocally (with wife family) which actually uncommon among the society. Social life on the whole villages of Northern coast is really very weak a nd like there is big aphatism among members. Government instruction for the maintenance of village environment, economic life and social are considered already completed when it have been announced. No further self initiative of better life. There is no leader arising among them. Most leaders that could mobilize them are ambonese, Chinese, and other people from central Indonesia who work there. This is indeed a great barrier to develop the society. They do not respond to the modernization planned by the government. This is indeed they will be very easy to be provocated by countries that is like Australia to insert their interest to southern hemisphere. united state congress members that do not know about what development in West Papua used this situation of their resident as goodwill to Australian, as if they are savages of the provocated West Papua resident. It is very contradictory when east Nusa Tenggara or other part of Indonesian fishermen dragged by sea current to have reach Australian water, the government of Australia will soon departed them to Indonesia.

THE SUNDANESE OF WEST JAVA

THE SUNDANESE OF WEST JAVA

Sundanese is the resident of West Java, known to Pasundan or Priangan land, covers an area around 4.500.000 hectares. One of the area with most densely populated region after Java. Sundanese is differentiate from Javanese based on their dialect which is different from Javanese. In Pasundan area have been developping a big and modern cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, and Cirebon. The area at the east is bordered from Java by Cilosari and Citanduy rivers.
In the past there was a famous kingdom ever flourishing, named Pajajaran Hindu kingdom. When Moslem influence was arriving, the people around the shores of Java must have been very interested due to the traders at the moment from West India usually rich men. So local people were interested to imitate them, or at least they got inspiration from them. So now the resident of the Pasundan are almost 98% Moslem.
As mentioned above that one indicator of the Sundanese is their different dialect from Javanese, while physically they are the same as Javanese, where mongoloid character is stronger than Malay characteristics. Sundanese dialect introduces 3 levels of speak, those are the refine one is spoken to older/senior people, normal speak is spoken among the colleges, and the low speak is addressed to the servants, children, students or similar level.
West Java also introduces social organization called Desa to cover the social affairs. The type of this Desa is almost the same for the whole Pasundan. The affinity among members of the Desa is not as strong as those in Bali, since the affairs they covers within the Desa is much smaller and is limited to those programs prepared by government.
Development of economy in West Java has been very complex from rural farming, big scale or estate, and industries with the centers of cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, and Cirebon. It is estimated around 500.000 hectares are cultivated land for agriculture, while the rest are only dry land farming and forests.
Number of population in West Java is one of the biggest social problem, where industry and government are are unable to create job opportunities, beside some mental problem of the society which is required by modern economic tendencies. In the growing weakness of Indonesian economy some areas were really suffering.
Some tourism object in West Java are the Ujung Kulon Nature Reserve, Baduy traditional village, Bogor Botanical garden, Ciater Hotspring, Mang Ujo Angklung bamboo music, and places of interest in Jakarta as National Capital and industry in Bandung.

THE PEOPLE OF NIAS

THE PEOPLE OF NIAS

This group is consist of 11 islands along the coast with biggest are Nias and Siberut islands. Nias People has of Mongoloid physical characters, with bright yellow accented skin and straight hairs. They live in a simple way, and just currently they got the influence from Sumatra mainland. Their megalithic culture is still strong, which is become the main attraction for tourists beside their fine beaches and clear water. Most people lives on farming and fishing.
The famous tourist's attraction is the ceremony of initiation or war training. A high wall is installed on the front of the house. During the initiation ceremony a youth is required to be able to jump over the wall. When he is able to pass this ceremony than he is considered as entering the full right in the society. The ceremony is called "zawozawo" Not less interesting is their housing architecture and pattern. Traditional villages such as Bawomataluwo and Hilisimaetano are not unfamiliar among world adventures, and anthropological researchers.
Their language is Malay-Polynesian with 3 dialects, but they understand each other. Since they do not introduce writing, their words' vocabulary might changes throughout the decades have passed. On the west coast of Sumatra island there are many small islands inhabited by local people from unknown time such as Simalubek, Banyak, Nias, Batu, Siberut, Sipora, Pagai and Enggano. The group of Nias island is the biggest among them and record was started that Nias people has been in trade relation with Aceh in 1669 which gave them an influence of Islam, While Christian just reached the island much later since 1874 especially in the town of gunung Sitoli, the Catholic came later in 1914 reached on the southern area of Nias islands. The development of population on Nias has been very fast, a record for 1914 was 130.000, in 1967 has been doubled to 300.000. According to the research by E.E.W.Gs Schroeder that before the arrival of Dutch trader in 1669 the Nias has been doing trade relation with Aceh, Chinese, Malay and the Bugis. The color of Nias people is more yellower then other people of Indonesia which origin is still not yet clear. In general the language spoken by Nias people can be grouped as Malay-Polynesian stem, but the level of morphemic it is different from other Indonesian dialects. Their words do not introduce in the middle or at the end, which is called vocalist dialect. Also the use of O phoneme makes different from other dialects. Within the area of Nias itself there 2 dialects, one is used on northern area, and the other is on southern area. Nias island is the main island enclosed by other small islands such as Hinako, Senau, Safau and Batu islands. West beach of the islands is faced with strong wave of Indian Ocean and in the middle is mountainous with the highest peak of 886 m above sea level. Most villages are in the difficult inner part of the island which is a clear technique for them in resistencing of the invader. The shape of it's village mostly u-shape and the house of the head on the bottom of U. While on the west area the pattern of the village parallel house rows. The original house of they are 2 Nias is made on stilt with oval outline or quadrangular shape of basement. This is the traditional house of Nias which size is bigger then other families houses. The traditional house is divided into 2 part, the front functioned as place for receiving guest including guest for overnight, and inner part for the family and owner. At the front of the houses are menhirs, a megalithic construction made of stone in anthropomorphic and huge penis. Also stone altar at the front of the house which was used to organized a big feast in the past from the status increase their social status. In southern Nias villages stone jump altars still can be seen today, especially at Teluk Dalam village. This high jump was a training to the villages to jump over enemi's wall or any high barriers during war. Visitor see this tradition at the village called Bawomataluo and Hilisimaetano a village in Nias normally facilitated with water fountain which is used as public bathing place, while for water closed they built on their pig house. In the past they have many animistic constructions which have been change into churches and they still call it Osali. The main subsistence of Nias people is farmer both at highland and lowland. They use simple tools such as long knife, like sword, hues and stick. They don not know the use of plough sagged by cow or buffaloes as other parts of Indonesia. The Nias people use round knife like fingering to harvest by bare hands. They grow rice, tapioca, yam, beans, chili, corn, banana and other minor horticulture when go for hunting to protect their cultivation from wild animal such as wild pigs, squires, deer, fruit bats and others. They use net to trap the animal by driving them to their net using dogs. Other also sail to the sea for fishing or capture the fish using nets. Their most popular domesticated animal is pig, goats, and cow. Nias was ever known as pig exporter in the recent decade, yet today their production has been really going down. Beside animal growing they also able to make tools in metal such as sword and long knife for arm with beautiful shape. Genealogy system of Nias is a big family called Sangambato which is consist of Senior family with families of their children. This Sangambato is a unit of economic life and based on patrilineal lineage. Bato is called Mado or Gana. Within a Mado or Gana member can not merry each other unless each of the couple can be proved that they genealogically already at least 10th generation, so Nias people has the marriage tradition of exogamy between Mado. The process of marriage in Nias tradition consist of many steps. First the parent of the youth will come to the family of the girl advising the intention of their son to marry their daughter, while bring girls' family 3 pao gold (1 pao around 10 gram). As a change the family of the girl gives a bag of boiled pig meat. Three week after the family of the youth return the bag with boiled pig meat second step is the discussion to set us the date of marriage ceremony and the amount of payment in gold to girl's parent. Third step is marriage ceremony, when a big number of pig are slaughtered for the invitees and big feast, which mean show up of wealthy. After finishing this ceremony then the bridge is brought to her husband house. The parent of the girl will 4 give this new couple one female pig and a sword as the first capital for them to build the family. When the couple has a child whom given a name for example "Hilo" then their relatives or neighbor will address they wife as Ama Hilo for the husband, and Ina Hilo for the wife. Death ceremony is very important in Nias society, the same as Tiwah and Ngaben in Bali. This ceremony take a big vast. It can be a slaughating of 200-300 pigs during ceremony. But today, only certain person or family that still conduct this type of ceremony to show their Velethyness. In the past the people of Nias introduced social strata especially South Nias. Siulu or Nable, Ere or religious leaders, Ono Mbanera or Common people, and Sawuyu or Slave. Slaves that were capture of war or abduction were said to have been sacrificed during ancient ceremony. The Nias before they know foreign religion such as Christianity, Moslem and Buddhist they already have their original belief called Pelebegu. The Pelebegu is basically a worship of ancestor's worship, yet there are also myth about time after death, pantheon and the status of human life elements such as they body and the spirit. When one died the body back into dust, and the spirit continue to live in the heaven what they call Teteholi Ana'a.

THE MINANGKABAU WEST SUMATRA

THE MINANGKABAU WEST SUMATRA

The Land

The people of Minangkabau is the Malay who reside current West Sumatra Province with the capital city of Padang. A city with around 300.000 residents located on the west coast of West Sumatra, facing Indian ocean Other big city in West Sumatra is Bukit Tinggi located on highland with nice temperature which is considered the capital city of Minangkabau land. Historical researches revealed that the first kingdom on the country was located around 60 kms away from Bukit Tinggi city, a place called Pagaruyung. Here was found stone inscription in old Malay language and old Javanese writing. The inscription mentioned that king Adityawarman was ruling the country who was assigned by the kingdom of Pajajaran from West Java in 14th century. During the time West Java was under the control of the Great Kingdom of Majapahit.
The country has a unique traditional organization called Nagari which is comparable to the meaning of a village. Within the Nagari organization system it is introduced 2 basic systems. Firstly is Body-Caniago, a democratic system, and Koto-Piliang system, an autocratic system. Today these 2 systems have become more and more disappeared due to the application of national system. Almost all people of Minangkabau is Moslem. In the past many rituals that had relation with religion now already discarded or simply forgotten. Some people are still believe in invisible being or holy spirits that could effect human life. Today West Sumatra is modern provice with the population estimated to have reached a number of around 4.000.000

To reach the country one can fly directly to Padang from any big cities in Indonesia. Fly from Jakarta need only 2 hours, and from Medan the capital city of North Sumatra is only 1 hour. Yet one who wish to travel with visit to some great places along the land of North and West Sumatra will take car from Medan to Padang, a distance of 800 kms and can be completed within 7 days with overnight stop at some places such as Mountain resort of Berastagi, 2 night at Lake Toba and Samosir Island the land of Batak Tribe, the city of Padang Sidempuan the border between the land of Batak and Minangkabau, then continue to Bukit Tinggi and Padang by crossing the equator line at the town of Bonjol, between Bukit Tinggi and Padang. One thing that is well known from West Sumatra is the cuisine called "Masakan Padang". The people of Minangkabau used to leave their country and live at other areas of Indonesia, even in Malaysia. If you see a restaurant named "Ruman Makan Padang" it is a Minangkabau restaurant, and sometimes in short called "Rumah Makan Minang". Many experts say that matrilineal system of their society that force Minangkabau men to leave their land to other parts of Indonesia, and even to Malacca, which is now known as Malaysia. Too many families of West Sumatra has the relatives in Malaysia. And the name of Padang Restaurant is known by the whole Indonesia. Wherever you go within the Indonesia you can find the restaurant named Minang or Rumah Makan Minang. The famous tourist resort and places of interests are located in the area of Bukit Tinggi. The famous tourist's object in West Sumatera such as the Canyon ( Sihanok Canyon ), just on the west border of Bukit Tinggi city, Japanese Militery Defense Cave on the west corner of Bukit Tinggi city, Rumah Gadang at Pagaruyug, Songket weaving at Pande Sikat village, and natural sceneries for lakes and mountains and Anai waterfall

Kinship Tradition
The only ethnic of Indonesia using mother line or mother genealogy as the main lineage of family heir in Indonesia. In relation to the family genealogy and heritages the Minangkabau has typical tradition called matrilineal or matriarchart system. Children are considered belong to the mother and her sister(s), not belong to father and his sister(s) or brother(s). A father seems to be out of the family, out of his wife and his children. He has no right to claim the heritage(s) of the family and acts as the guard only for the whole heritages and heirlooms of the family to be safe, or just like a security for a company. The concept of a family in Minangkabau society is different from the rest of Indonesian ethnic group, the core family ( father, mother and their children ) is not a family, but is only part of a of a family. The understanding of a family in Minangkabau society is a unit consist of mother's sister(s), mother's brother(s), son(s) and daughter(s) of mother's sister(s). While father and his son(s) are belong to other family that is father's sister(s). The core family has no right to the whole management of family heritages and heirlooms and in the society structure of obligation and rights. Yet the growth and education of the children sons or daughters is the full responsibility of father and mother apart. A father or son is not the heir of a family, but it is the daughter(s) of mother and her sister(s) of mother. Husband has the duty to guard the family heritages, managing, and distributing to the heirs safely, not for the sake of himself. Wife or wife's sister(s) will not allow him to rent or sell the heritages. Heritages in the Minangkabau language is called "Pusako", compared to Indonesian "Pusaka" which has almost the same meaning. Pusako is divided into 2 groups, the high pusako including land of rice field or dry land, estate or plantations, while low pusako is heirlooms, or gift. All these heritages are owned by the line of mother from generation to generation. All these heritages will go to mother's daughter(s), and in case the heir is absent, then based on consensus will be taken the girl from mother's line to be the family heir. That is the main reason that a man from Minangkabau prefers to leave their land and go to other country. The original house of Minangkabau is a high house to reflect the structure of their family sistem, built on poles with roofs shaped as horn, almost similar with that of Torajan in south Sulawesi. Thie house is called "Rumah Gadang"

Core Family

A unit of family in Minangkabau society as mentioned above is consist of big family which is called pariuk or perut, kampueng or suku, depending on the area, weather they are on lowland or on the mountain area. But it shows the smallest unit of a family, reflected in the architecture of their house called " Rumah Gadang" Kampueng or Suku was formed by Datuk Parpatih Nan Sebatang based on his visit to China. The way the Chinese identify their family by using family names amazed him and inspired him to manage the people of Minangkabau with this system. At the beginning it is said only 3 groups were exist those were the group of Suku Koto, Suku Piliang, Suku Bodi, and Suku Caniago. As the number and area of West Sumatra was to wide, each of these Suku again divided into smaller units. At some places a Suku had far bigger number of residents, while the Suku of their neighbors had much fewer members. Since the marriage is regulated between Suku, so it was not enough for one Suku that had bigger members to merry the Suku with fewer member. Based on this condition, again the bigger Suku was divided into smaller unit of Sukus called Paruik or Perut. Here Perut became the smaller unit of administration. A Suku or Perut is headed by 4 elders: The Penghulu, the Malim, the Manti and the Dubalang.

Who was Datuk Parpatih? Researches so far disclose that from the turn of Christian era the latest of 14th century West Sumatra was under the control of Hindu and Buddhist kingdom. Sriwijaya kingdom believed to have ruled Sumatra from the beginning of Christian era up to 10th century, then taken over by the great kingdom of Majapahit. The terminology " Parpatih" makes no doubt that it is " Patih ", the prime minister of the minister of Hindu king, weather Sriwijaya or Majapahit who trusted to rule the country. The relation between the country with China as mentioned above gives the indication that the person was a Hindu or Buddhist, not Islam. Other interesting question is why only West Sumatra that use the tradition of Matriarchart, while the rest of Indonesian ethnic using patriarchart? This is still un-answered until today.

THE MINAHASA NORTH SULAWESI

THE MINAHASA NORTH SULAWESI

The area covers 5.273 square kilometers, with total resident of 1.718.000 people based on cencus in 1971. There are also residents coming from other part of Indonesia such as Chinese, Makasar, European, Arabian, and from islands near Ambon.
Based on their dialect they are consist of 4 groups, but each other still understand in communication, except dialect of Tonsawang, it changes to far from it's parent language. Their basic living are farmers with still big numbers depending on seasonal planting. Only during rainy season they cultivate the land and plant corn, vegetables, spices, bean, cassava, yam, etc. Some good soil especially in Minahasa regency with it's capital Manado can be cultivated all year round. So here the farmer more established.
The Minahasan mostly Christian, but there are also small part Moslem, Buddha and others. Local believe is still alive, especially those traditional rituals to the ancestor's spirits.
Manado has excellent underwater life which is already famous among world's divers. Diving spots are around the islands of Bunaken, and Manado Tua. Karl Muller the author of the Periplus Addition of Indonesia Under Water said that Bunaken diving site is world class walls and outstanding fish life.
The Minahasan is also have Mongoloid characters and speak Malayu - Polinesian variation of the language. There are many people also coming from Ambon ( Maluku ) area where people have more melanesoid characters, beside also European, during the colonization of Indonesia. So, in Manado the people are mixed between them.

THE PEOPLE OF MENTAWAI

THE PEOPLE OF MENTAWAI

Mentawai island is one line with Nias and located further South, near West Sumatra, and reside Pagai, Sipora, and Siberut islands. Physically they are the same as Nias people, and speak a variation of Melayu-Polinesian language. Since the location of the islands is aside from the sea traffic, actually until today the development is not significant yet. They have already learnt Christian by missionaries since 18th centuries, so until now almost 98% of them are Christian and Catholic. This culture is interesting for anthropologist to explore the simple life where nature still regulate their every day life.

The oldest record about Mentawai population was made in 1796 recorded 11.090, in 1930 recorded 17.900 and 1966 recorded 20.000. The Mentawai consist of 4 main islands, the Siberut, Sipora, Pagai Utara and Pagai Selatan. Mentawai islands are covered by dense forest with mountain in the middle of the islands stretches from north to south as it all islands are connected. Record until 1980 still found all island had premier forest even up to the beach. All beaches covered by dense coconut trees, and no one of the village was visible from the sea or from the air. All villages are located near the river's estuary, yet still 5kms deep in;and from the beach. Each village has an average of 150 people, while at Pagai Utara and Siberut islands can be found a village with 500 residents. In the past a village was consist of one big house built on stilt and enclosed by small houses as the house of families which were also on stilt. On the surrounding of the village was cultivated their fruits trees. They also cultivated land under big trees in the forest. The big house called Uma with the size 25 x 10 meters on strong poles 1,5m high including in all house total height can reach 10m. To reach the room is used wooden steps directly contact to from and side terrace. The terrace enclosed all Uma. The door from front area bring one to wide room with gallery to the back on which sides are smaller rooms for sleeping. Front room is considered a holy place. The function of Uma as until today still can be found is the place for organizing traditional ritual for the numbers whom still have blood relation, and at the front room are preserved various valuable traditional heirs, in anthropology known as fetish. Some materials are considered as charms beside also arms and human skeletons. This front room is also used by guest who need to overnight during their trip. According to the record this type of house with it's original function has started to disappeared during 1920, especially in Pagai Selatan island, yet the Uma can still be seen in some villages, and functioned only as meeting places, school, and also ever as church. The former smaller stilt houses also become more and more disappeared or only used as meeting places. It is lucky that some of these houses can still be seen until today. The main subsistence of the Mentawai is simple farming be clearing the land from small and medium trees, burn the cut plantation for fertilizer. The main cultivation is yam (Colocasea esculenta), Taro (dioscoren Alata), rice, banana, papaya, sugar cane, vegetable, and medicaments. The Mentawai introduces rice since around 1930s, quiet in contrary with the rest of Asian ethnics who have been cultivating rice since farming revolution. Clearing the land is the assignment of men, while for the treatment of growing is taken over by women. The exclusive work dome by men is hunting of pigs, deer, birds, monkey and others using bows. It is know that before Christian religious reaching the island, youths and girls of 16-20 years among members of Uma, this ritual called Rimata. Rimata was also the 4 persons who was respected as the leader who take care of family heirs, and various social activities of an Uma. When a Mentawai is dead all his heritages were divided among his children, but if her did not have child it will be distributed for his brothers and sisters. For the women when she got married with a man and bring her children from her previous marriage, these children would not got the heritage, as they would be given by their father or mother which during the marriage was separated from husband's wealth. Record in 1966 mentioned that 55% Christian, 34% Catholic and 11% Moslem. Although foreign religions have been accepted in Mentawai, yet original concept of ritual is continued, until now. The Mentawai has the concept of life and after here. The spirit that bring human to alife is called "Simagere". When human being is dead his/her spirit left the body and live around human place. This spirit is called "Sabulungan", The spirit that make human being to be strong and powerful is called "Kere", while the spirit that protect houses called "Kira", Evil spirits that can trouble human being is called "Sanitu". The Mentawai also know the magician who was consulted for medicament called "Sikeree". The basic concept of Sikerei is almost the same as other ethnics of the world, that using the stranger's soul as the cause of the diseas or assumption that the patient has offensed their fasting had been intimate relation, beside also girls had been intimate relation with her youth in her village. Some times a girl give birth a child without formal marriage, which then the child will be cared by her parents. A formal marriage would then be reached if the couple advised their wish to their parents. Also friends, and neighbor will be informed of the marriage. It was not recorded, that following a marriage if was a special ritual or traditional ceremony such as in Nias. When a couple has reached their 40s, usually the husband build a new house to upgrade his status in the society. With his new status he then become a busy man to fulfill traditional activities in the village, doing very strict fasting season which is called "Punen". The fasting limited man in meals, economic activities and intimate relation. With his new status he would also add more burden to take care of his sons, daughters and even grand children. His new house would be completed with charms, relics, and other family heirs. In Mentawai word this new status of a family was called to have been reaching "Lalep". Where a husband was respected by their society. When Christianity reached the island changes happened and the meaning of "Penen" become holiday. On Siberut island until today can still be seen a ritual of initiation for children or members between 12-15 years to become full member of the Uma. This will bring the equal right and obligation for the members that got initiation ceremony. Normally the feast is big followed by skin tattoo age the leader of.

JAVANESE PEOPLE AND PLACES

JAVANESE PEOPLE AND PLACES

The area of Java is very vast covering central and east Java island. In ancient time Mataram kingdom which are now the the special district of Yogyakarta and Solo in Central Java were the center of their culture. In 1755 the kingdom was splited into 2, one is the Sultanate of Yogyakarta, and one other is Kasunanan of Surakarta ( both are Islamic kingdoms ). Javanese speak complex dialect which introduces social status. In general the dialect is divided into two levels that are "Ngoko" dialect which is spoken among known partners, and "Krama" dialect which is spoken among those who are not known each other and for those whose social status is considered higher. Both Ngoko and Krama have more further variations, when it was spoken for palace member, higher status level, or more senior people, or for lower level, etc.

Java land is the most densely populated in Indonesia. Many big cities are still developing such as Yogyakarta, Semarang, Solo, Surabaya, Blitar, and Malang. While dozens of medium to small cities still heavy with population. So the welfare of the people is still a tremendous big works. Still a large part of the population working on the land cultivating rice, cassava ( marlihot utilissima Phl), corn (zea mays L), yam (ipomea batatas poir ), Kacang ( vigna sinencis), gude (cjamis cajan), soya ( glycine soya Bth ), bean (arachis hypogen L), etc.

Some people work in government offices, private companies, trades and especially near the beaches as fishermen. Personal ownership of land in Java is the same as other areas in Indonesia. The ownership is transferred down from generation to generation, divided among the heirs. That is why in Java most family has a small land for farming.

Kinship system in Java is almost the same as in Bali, that is forbidden to marry between brother and sister, nephew, and children among brothers and sisters, and marry older woman. There are many ways a man and a woman come to their marriage status. First the family of the man come to the family of the woman to request their daughter, and this is the normal procedure. Second is when a man after dedicated himself to the parent of the woman, than is given as a present to marry their daughter. Third is the present from royal family. Fourth is the family of the woman come to the family of man to request. Fifth is when a marriage is arranged by both parents, in this case the marriage will be an imperative and forced by both parents. This way is become very rare and might be disappear in the future. Divorce in some reasons is accepted due to the absence of child, inability of husband to give welfare to the wife, and other reasonable causes.

In Javanese society there is class considered high status such as "bandara-bandara" consist of royal family lineage, and the "priyayi" the government workers and learnt persons. In contrast to above 2 groups is a class called "wong cilik" means small people, those are the common people which is mostly poor. Based on religious characteristics there are "Santri" and "Kejawen" Santri is Moslem that is very obedience with Islamic rules, while Kejawen is Moslem but they are not praying nor have the idea to go for a haj to Mecca.

Organizationally, the smaller unit of administration is called Desa or Kelurahan with head called "Lurah" Once again the understanding of Desa in Java contains much different affairs compared those a Desa in Bali. A Desa in Java is an administrative area as a bridge between Indonesian government with local organization.

Islam has been is the majority religion in Java, not question about that as at every corner of the land we can see mosques. Not all Javanese practice religious rituals according to the Islamic doctrines. As already mentioned there are "Kejawen", and also many people are Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, and others. The Moslem-Kejawen believe that there is an omni-power incomparable wherever and whenever it does.. This supreme power is called "Kesakten" Below kesakten there are ancestor's spirits, good and evil spirits which can affect human life. In conjunction with this power and spirits they make an offering and a feast for the blessing ceremony. Those rituals such as:

1. Life circle rites including many ritual after death. Basically there are ritual from Pregnancy - Birth - Life - Death - After Death.
2. Various ritual for the Desa, Rice field, and Land cultivation,
3. Various ritual for the Moslem holidays,
4. Ritual for special event such as opening new house, diseases, long journey etc.

During the ritual they make an offering and is dedicated to supreme power and the lower invisible beings. Even, after death they have ceremonies after 3, 7, 40, 100, and 1000 days.

In their ritualistic tradition it is very clear that influence of Hindu is still very strong observing from the names they use, and some specific beliefs which arises such as (1) a belief of good and evil spirits, (2) a belief mixed between Moslem and Hindu, (3) a belief showing Hindu characters, (4) a belief in mystic. They are all in search of human welfare.

Various tourism interests are spreaded over Java from western tip to eastern tip of the island. Lately the security concern is arises due to the economic crisis of the country which is not last yet.

Yogyakarta Special Province

1. Borobudur Buddhist temple and many smaller temples,
2. Prambanan Hindu temple,
3. Sultan Palace,
4. Gold and Silversmiths
5. Ambarawa Train Museum,
6. Wayang carving,
7. Handicrafts

Solo/Surakarta

1. Sunan Palace
2. Ancient anthropormorphic bed in Sangiran

Malang

1. Singasari temple,
2. Penataran temple,
3. Sukuh temple

Surabaya

• Old port

Bondowoso

1. Bromo Montain
2. Ijen Crater

Banyuwangi

Kali Klatak coffee estate,

Baluran and Meru Betiri nature reserve

THE FLORESIAN PEOPLE

THE FLORESIAN PEOPLE

Flores is one of the main islands of east Nusa Tenggara which are consist of Flores, Sumba, Komodo, Solor Alor, Roti and west Timor. There are many small islands on the water of flores such as Rinca, Ende, Adonare, Tomblem, Pador, Besar, Pomana, Babi, Pamana, and Palu. At the beach of West Flores, north sea of Komodo there are group of small islands consist of Sebayur Besar, Sebayur Kecil, Tataba, Siaba Besar, Mapean, Papagaram Besar, Papagaram Kecil, Panakia, Pimpe, Boasala, Kaaba, Kalong, Kelor, Bangko, and many specs of Atols Administratively Flores is under East Nusa Tenggara Province separated from Bali around 1950s, and now has the center of administration at Kupang city on West Timor island. There are 8 sub-ethnic group live on the island including it's small island ; (1) The Manggarai, (2) The Riung, (3) Ngada, (4) Nage-Keo, (5) The Ende, (6) The Lio, (7) The Sikka, (8) Larantuka. Sub no 2,3,4 and 5 culturally shows slight difference, yet compare to Manggaraian shows significant difference including physical traits. The Manggarai people has the market physical characteristic of Mongoloid-Malay, but some small characteristic showing the other group above. The skin color of the Manggaraian is brighter like other Western Indonesian people with more people have straight hairs. The other ethnic groups shows great similarity of Malanesian people, although their skin color is not as dark as the people of West Papua. At the east tip of Flores there is a sub-ethnic living at Larantuka town showing great mix of people. this probably has been caused by the fact that Larantuka has become the center of Christian missionary from 17th century. So inter marriage have been taking place. The number of people recorded in 1930 around 250.000 people, and more better census in 1964 recorded 1.582.200 people. With this figure Flores and it's island showing small density of population which is 41 person per square km. Their village for Manggaraian are constructed on the highland or foot of mountain, and each village formed circular, divided into 3, front, center and back. In the past at each part of this settlement had special holy place which was considered the place of the guardian of the village. This holy places are assemblages of natural stones with stepped pyramid with flat on top. At the front is banyan tree and the village meeting hall. In the past this meeting hall also place to preserve a drum, a music instrument which is considered a holy tool. This type of stone altar also known by people of Ngada at central Flores. In the past the villages were fenced with strong bamboo, and the outer part still protected by plants having sharp stings, yet today this type of villages are left already, but traces can still be seen at some places. The people of Ngada has started to cultivated the land with irrigation system since 60 years ago where they could manage more stable life. But some people are still moving from one place to another clearing and burn forest. The main crops they grow are corn and rice. Besides cultivating land for crops the Floresian also grow buffaloes, but it is not for their economic value, only for feast, religion, status symbols, gift of marriage is also important beside horses. Horse also use for transporting people and goods. Marriage tradition of Floresian, especially among Manggarai, happened naturally as a result of the relation between youth and girl, but this type of marriage required big amount of gift to be given to girl's parent. So the ideal marriage to avoid this high requirement is marriage between a youth with the daughter of his mother's brother, and also marriage by fledging from home with the approval of both sides. Like other ethnics of Indonesia the procedure of marriage is almost the same, initiated by youth's parents and relatives will come to girl's parent to request their girl for their son. It is often that a man has married a woman but still can not give the gift to woman's parents, so he has to work for some days or months to pay this at wife's parents. Other type of marriage in Manggarai or Floresian is general is monogamy very rare of case polygamy like in Java, furthermore Floresian are already Christian observer. Kinship system of the Manggarai and Ngada is a big family base on patrilineal leanage, living virilocally, called a "Kilo" some kilo form a small clan or minimal leanage called "Panga" which traces their generation up to 5 to 6 generations. Today the relation within the Panga is not clear anymore except for the name tradition. In the past the unit of Panga will be bound by the traditional ceremony such as death ceremony, building public places and others. The bigger group of Panga is called "wa'u" who has a complex of same traditional elements, folklore, totem, and common ancestors, and ceremonies which all have been forgotten today. In 1761 the kingdom of Bima in Sumbawa took over the central of Makassar on Manggarai, but this was not long, as Bima was shocked by great explosion of Mt. Tambora in 1815. From the report of Bima kingdom staff at Manggarai it is known that the center of Manggarai kindom wasat Cibal. The original structure of Manggarai kingdom can still be seen until today. The kingdom was consist of units called "Dalu". It were 39 Dalu, each Dalu consist of some Glarang, and each Glarang consist of some villages or "beo". Every Dalu usually controlled by a clan or by a wa'u. The head of a Dalu is called a "Kraeng Adak", while the most important Dalus such as Todo and Bayo, their head is called "Sangaji". Important offices in Manggarai are "tu'a tana" a person who expert in land ownership, and "raja bicara" a diplomat. These officers were present at head level of kingdom, Dalu and Glarang. 5 social layers is also introduces based on originality of their place on the society or in more clear tense is seniority. The Kraeng in Manggarai, and Gae Meze in Ngada are the borjouise, while "Ata Leke" in Manggarai and "Gae Kisa" in Ngada is common people, and the group of slaves which is not exist anymore. The traditional belief of Floresian is general by concept is the same as other ethnic groups of Indonesia, basically they respect the ancestors, plus holy souls of nature. In Manggarai and Ngada they have highest god called "Mori Karaeng", while Ngada called "Deva".

INDONESIA CHINESE

INDONESIA CHINESE

In every part of Indonesia especially in cities always presence the Chinese. But most Indonesian do not know them well. There are actually 4 groups of Chinese who have settled in Indonesia. These 4 groups are based on their language and origin in China. Chinese migration into Indonesia was happened between 16th to 19th century.

1. Hokkien people, was coming from Fukien Province as area very important for the history of Chinese trade in the south. They have a character that they are very diligent, patient, and delicate. They are very good in trading. So most of them are economically success. Their migration into Indonesia reached a wide area in east Indonesia, central Java, East Java, and west Sumatra.
2. Teo-Chiu and Hakka (Khek) people from southern part of China in hinterland of Swatow of eastern Kwantung Province. The Teo-Chiu and Hakka people was emplyed in the minings, such as East Sumatera, Bangka island, and Biliton.
3. Kanton people ( Kwong Fu ), was the resident of southern part of Kwantung province. At the beginning they were interested by Indonesian mining industry, and they come with skill. They are the people who own shops, and blacksmiths. They are not as many as Hakka and Teo-Chiu.

For Indonesian the 4 groups are not important, as they are much more known as:

1. Indonesian - Chinese or " Peranakan"
2. Original Chinese or "Totok"

This classification is much based on the degree of their assimilation and acculturation with the local people and culture. Most Hokkien who migrated first to Indonesia has experienced deep assimilation and acculturation, even their physical characters are almost the same as local people due to the marriage exchange. They mostly forget their language, and speak local language and Indonesian.

Group of migration that live in west Java, Sumatea West Kalimantan there are still Totok with Chinese villages, speak their own language and continiue their culture in Indonesia.

During Dutch colonization with the different treatment in social status and affairs, they did not want to be classified as the local. This is again grown by the China Nationalist propaganda arises during 20th century. This propadanda of re-orientating their nation. This is given an advantage again with China system of nationality of father's blood lineage or nationality based on blood relation called ius sanguinis. This policy before 1955 had caused double nationality. The most important from this impact is the growing awareness of the Great China family or in simple a process of totonized.

In general most Chinese in Indonesia work in trade, especially the Hokkien. In West Java and West Sumatera they are farmers. In Bagan Siapi-api ( Riau ) the Hokkien are fishermen. The Hakka in Sumatera work as labor in minings, while in West Kalimantan they are farmers. The Teo-Chiu work as farmers but many also labor in farm estates in East Sumatera.

The trade of Chinese in Indonesia is based on family's ownership and management. Mostly small size and do not need worker from outside. If their business growing, they open new branch which is given to their brother, child or any family member to manage, except if they build limited corporation do they works with other Chinese clan or even other ethnic that they consider profitable.

It was a paradigm that the Totok consider the Peranakan is lower in class due to their mixed blood, while the Peranakan consider the Totok is lower in class as they are all coming to Indonesia as labor. During Dutch colonization the Chinese as if they were an autonomous society and was permitted to rebuild their own culture in Indonesia, and just after the ethnic getting strong the Dutch realized the situation and closed all education belong the the exclusive Chinese and their organization. During Japan control on Dutch East India, all western schools were closed, and again Chinese school rebuilt. After the independence of Indonesia all educational facility and system were reorganized and adjusted under the basic constitution of Indonesia, that the Educational Facility is for all, and no special treatment be exist. Starting from 1957 all Indonesian must follow the rules no exception of any ethnic.

Kinship system of Chinese in Indonesia is almost the same as main ethnic cultures in Indonesia such as marriage suggestion and interdiction. The only different is their family unit is much bigger ( big virilocal ). The status of women in the past was low and become the subject of her husband, brothers, and their parent in law. A man pursue to have boy, and as long as the boy has not yet born, the husband can take more women.

In Indonesia the Chinese follow Buddhist, Kung Fu-tse, Christian and Islam, although in Great Chine the population are Buddhist. The strong belief of Chinese is their love to the ancestors, although they are already passed this world, their body is cremated, and the ash is kept at home, in a ceramic vas. They also celebrate the Chinese New Year called " Imlek" in Indonesia, while in Great China it is called " Summer Feast ", and in Bali is called " Chinese Galungan"

THE BUGIS OF SOUTH SULAWESI

THE BUGIS OF SOUTH SULAWESI

The people of Bugis-Makassar is the residents of South Sulawesi ( Celebes ) covers an area around 100.457 square kilo meters, with total population around 5.600.000. This people is famous for their expert in sailing on the deep ocean. As a sailor they have spreaded over many areas of Indonesia such as North Sumatera, Malaysia, Kalimantan, Java, Bali, Maluku, Sumbawa, and West Flores.

Their house is built on wooden poles so it is a high house. Basically there are 2 types: a type of feudal house and the other is common people house. Although they are Moslem but during house construction theymake some ceremonies according to the local belief.

Basic economic activity in South Sulawesi is farming such as rice and corn. In the past during 19th century south Sulawesi was surplus on farming products and sea products, so it can be exported to other part of Indonesia, even China for their Holothurioidea ( sea stars fish ). People of South Sulawesi is famous for their sea exploration as a sailors to catch fish and transport products by sea with sailing boat up to Philippine, West Papua New Guinea, and even Australia. Until today most of traditional cargo boats in Indonesia re navigated by people from South Sulawesi.

Ninety percent of the population is Moslem, and 10% Christian and others. Moslem was started in 17th century. However local tradition before was still alive such as concept of organization and life ethic wich all now incorporated into Moslem. Other tradition is relected in a book written in the past such as the ar of La Galigo story.

In South Sulawesi there is one a famous tourism object located on Northern area of the province. But this area is belong to Toraja Culture, with the residents of Central Sulawesi. The Torajan speak different dialect from Bugis-Makassar. The area is 325 kilo meters away from the capital city of Bugis-Makassar that is Makassar city, and with driving takes around 7 to 8 hours. The tradition of Toraja is very deeply ritualistic and a an excessive co-operation among their members due to their heavy burden of rituals, although most of them are already Christian and Moslem